In order to function adequately, the immune system is dependent on numerous regulatory interactions between organs, in a complex set of hormone and neuropeptide connections involving the nervous and endocrine systems. When an organism is faced with a stressor—broadly defined as ‘any aversive condition, be it a predator or an aggressive conspecific, disturbance to established social hierarchies, overcrowding, an infective parasite or foreign peptide or thermal extremes’ (Husband & Bryden 1996) that would affect fitness if not avoided or successfully tolerated (Martin 2009)—various body systems act together to activate and coordinate responses. This cascade of events involves synergistic, agonistic or antagonistic interactions between the sympathetic adrenomedullary system, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis and the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (Lawrence & Kim 2000). Although such stress responses are essential to survival, inadequate, excessive or unremitting adrenocortical and autonomic function is detrimental for reproduction and survival and can have dramatic effects on immunocompetence (Leonard 2006), thereby increasing susceptibility and vulnerability to disease (Friedman & Lawrence 2002). READ MORE

Americans and Canadians share seven deer species and sub-species that roam the land from the east to the west coast. Some people believe wild deer are a beautiful part of nature, while others see the deer population as a fun sport and hunt.

Since deer move, some experts predict 1.5 million accidents yearly. Other sources suggest that deer collision statistics are much higher.

A popular car magazine points out that the seasonal clock change also impacts deer-vehicle collisions. The magazine’s source pegs deer accidents even higher at 2.1 million with a 10 billion dollar price tag and nearly 60,000 injuries.

On average, 440 people die. There were over 1.8 million animal collision insurance claims in the U.S. in one year, and State Farm reported 1,288,714 deer collisions. On top of deer-vehicle accidents, deer hunters kill at least 6.3 million white-tailed deer yearly.   READ MORE

Cougars (Puma concolor) have been recolonizing Midwestern North America during the past 3 decades with>950 cougar confrmations east of established populations. Due to an increase in confrmations east of current breeding populations, evaluation of cougar habitat suitability and connectivity is needed. However, few studies have assessed the habitat potential for cougar recolonization in the eastern portion of their former range.
Objectives We used various habitat quality thresholds to model potential cougar habitats and dispersal corridors throughout eastern North America. READ MORE